The Evolution of ‘Palestine’: From Roman Province to Modern Political Identity

 

The ongoing conflict and humanitarian catastrophe enable us to go back in time, sift through histories records and build a chronology of the past. This helps us to figure out who lived in the areas first, who has a larger claim and also identify the controversies and confusions that prevail. Over the centuries, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim communities lived, migrated, and grew in different areas, contributing to the evolving cultural and demographic landscape of the land historically referred to as ‘Palestine’.

 

The region historically referred to as “Palestine” has been home to diverse peoples, cultures, and religions for millennia. From Canaanite and Philistine populations in the pre-Jewish era, through the rise of Judaism, Roman and Byzantine administration, Muslim conquest, Crusader and Ottoman rule, to the British Mandate, the land has been shaped by successive civilizations.

 

The term “Palestine” itself originated in 132 CE, when Roman Emperor Hadrian renamed the province of Judea as Syria Palaestina, long after the Philistines had ceased to exist as a distinct people. For nearly two millennia thereafter, the name was purely a geographic and administrative label, with local populations identifying primarily by city, tribe, religion, or culture.

 

Roman use of Syria came from “Assyria” (the Neo-Assyrian Empire in northern Mesopotamia, ~900–600 BCE).

Over time, Greeks shortened “Assyria” to “Syria,”

 

This historical review traces the continuity of settlement, the evolution of religion and language, and the eventual emergence of the modern “Palestinian” national identity in the 20th century, demonstrating that the term “Palestinian” as an ethnic or political identity is a relatively recent construct.

 

Before Judaism (Pre-10th c. BCE)

 

Population: Canaanites, Philistines (Aegean origin-coastal people living in Gaza), Moabites, Edomites, and other Levantine tribes. Philistines assimilated culturally and linguistically with neighboring Canaanites and Israelites by 7^th century BCE. By the time of Emperor Hadrian (2nd century CE), they no longer existed as a distinct ethnic group.

 

Names: The land was known as Canaan (biblical term) and Philistia (southern coast).

Religion: Polytheistic cults (Baal, Ashtoreth, Dagon).

Fact: No Jews, no Christians, no Muslims, no “Palestinians.” existed.

 

1. Birth of Judaism & Jewish Identity (c. 18th–10th c. BCE onward)

 

Origins: Judaism traces back to Abraham, who entered into a covenant with one God. His descendants — Isaac, Jacob (Israel), and the twelve tribes — formed the Israelite people.

Exodus & Law: Under Moses, the Israelites left Egypt and received the Torah at Sinai, establishing Judaism as a law-based faith.

Settlement & Kingdoms: The tribes settled in Canaan, assimilated culturally and linguistically with neighboring Canaanites and Israelites. David (~1000 BCE) and Solomon (~970–930 BCE) united the Israelite kingdoms. First Temple (c. 957 BCE) built in Jerusalem became the center of Jewish worship.

As the Israelite tribes settled in Canaan, they coexisted and assimilated with local Canaanites, gradually forming the cultural and demographic landscape that would dominate Judea, Samaria, and Galilee for centuries.

Identity: After the split into Israel (north) and Judah (south), the people of Judah became known as “Jews.”

Presence: Jews lived continuously in Judea, Samaria, and Galilee for over a millennium, including during periods of foreign rule

Fact: Judaism was the earliest lasting monotheistic religion rooted in the land.

2. Roman Emperor — renames Judea as “Palestina” (132 CE)

 

• Key Event:Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) after which Jews were heavily suppressed by Rome; thousands were killed, enslaved or exiled.

Large portions of Judea became predominantly non-Jewish, with Roman veterans and other populations settling the land.

Jewish communities remained in Galilee, Samaria, and parts of Judea but were greatly reduced in numbers.

Thousands of Jews were killed, enslaved, or exiled, while Roman veterans and other settlers populated large parts of Judea, leaving Jewish communities concentrated mainly in Galilee, Samaria, and select towns.

• Action:Emperor Hadrian renames Judea → Syria Palaestina to erase Jewish ties to the land.
• Origin of Name:The name “Syria Palestina” was derived from the Philistines — a coastal people (12th–7th c. BCE) who once lived around Gaza.  Philistines… had long ceased to exist as a distinct ethnic group by Emperor Hadrian’s time
• Result:Syria Palaestina was strictly an imperial administrative label, not a recognition of any ethnic identity.
• This marked the first major demographic shift in which Jews no longer formed the majority in much of the former Kingdom of Judah

 

 

2a. Roman Religion & Policies (132–330 CE)

 

• Roman State Religion:Polytheism, worship of Jupiter, Mars, Venus, emperor cult.
• Jewish Population:Tolerated initially, but revolts (66–70 CE, 132–136 CE) led to harsh repression.
• Christianity:Emerged as a Jewish sect in the 1st century CE; persecuted because Christians refused emperor worship.
• Outcome:Both Jews and early Christians faced restrictions, while Roman paganism dominated public life.

 

3. Byzantine Period (330–638 CE)

 

Emergence of Christianity:

• Christianity began in the1st century CE as a Jewish sect, following the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth (c. 4 BCE – 30 CE).
• His followers proclaimed him the Messiah, and after his crucifixion, the movement spread through the apostles, especiallyPaul of Tarsus, who carried it beyond Jewish communities to Gentiles.
• “Palestina” remained administrative/geographic not ethnic or national identity

 

Status Under Rome:

• Christianity wasillegal and persecuted until Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan (313 CE) granting freedom of worship.
• By325 CE, with the Council of Nicaea, Christianity was formally organized as an imperial religion.
• By the late 4th century,Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire.

Administration:

• The Byzantine rulers kept the Roman termPalestina as an administrative unit, subdivided into Palestina Prima, Secunda, Tertia.
• Greek was the official language; Aramaic remained the local tongue.

 

Religion & Society:

• Christianity dominatedpublic life — churches were built in Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth.
• Jews remainedin Judea, Galilee, and scattered towns, but faced restrictions and occasional persecution.
• Paganism persisted in small, rural pockets.
• During Byzantine rule, Jewish populations remained largely confined to towns like Jerusalem, Galilee, and scattered villages, while Christianity became dominant in both rural and urban centers, gradually shifting the demographic majority away from Judaism.

 

Fact:

• “Palestina” in this era referred strictly togeography and administration.
• No group called “Palestinians” existed — the population consisted ofGreek-speaking Christians, Jews, and local Aramaic/Syriac speakers.

4. Muslim Conquest (638 CE onward)

 

By the 7th century, Judea was predominantly Christian, with Jewish communities diminished but still present, setting the stage for the coming Arab conquest

 

Pre-Islamic Levant (before 636 CE):

• Population: Predominantly Christian under Byzantine rule, with Jewish communities in Judea, Galilee, and scattered towns.
• Religion: Christianity dominant; Judaism persisted; local pagan practices existed in small pockets.
• Language & Administration: Greek and Aramaic were spoken; land administered as Roman/Byzantine provinces (Palestina Prima, Secunda, Tertia).

Islamic Origins:

• Islam emerged in Mecca (610 CE) with Prophet Muhammad’s first revelations. By 622 CE, the Hijra (migration to Medina) established the Muslim community; by 632 CE, Muhammad passed away, and Abu Bakr became the first Caliph. Islam rapidly expanded beyond Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphs.

• Conquest & Administration:Rashidun armies defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Yarmouk (636 CE); Jerusalem surrendered in 638

Byzantine “Palestina” became Jund Filasṭīn (“district of Palestine”) under the Caliphate. It remained a reference to an administrative district, not a country or an ethnic group

The name ‘Palestina/Filasṭīn’ had been in use ~480 years before Islam and continued as a geographic/administrative label after 638 CE

 

• Under the Rashidun and subsequent Caliphates, Jewish populations wereallowed to live as dhimmis (protected minorities) but faced limitations on settlement, political power, and public worship.
• Many Jews continued to live in towns with established communities (e.g., Jerusalem, Tiberias, Hebron), while Arab-Muslim settlement and conversion gradually expanded across coastal towns, Gaza, and central Judea/West Bank, contributing to the emergence of a predominantly Muslim population over time.
• Coastal areas like Gaza and much of central Judea/West Bank saw increasing Muslim majority populations.
• Cultural & Religious Shift:
• Islam introduced as the new ruling faith; Christians and Jews recognized as People of the Book (dhimmi).
• Arabic gradually replaced Greek/Aramaic as the dominant language.
• Conversion to Islam occurred slowly over centuries; Arabs and locals became Islamized, but no distinct “Palestinian” identity existed yet.
• These demographic shifts shaped an Arab-Muslim majority in many parts of the land, while communities of Jews and Christians continued to live alongside them. A distinct political or national identity for the inhabitants would emerge only much later.

 

• Fact:Filasṭīn was an inherited administrative name from Roman/Byzantine rule, not an ethnic identity.

The modern “Palestinian” identity would emerge only in the 20th century.

 

5. Crusader–Mamluk Period (1099–1517 CE)

 

During this period, Jewish communities were largely absent from southern coastal towns like Gaza and from central Palestine, while many found refuge in Egypt, Syria, or Galilee towns

 

• Crusaders (1099–1291):Created Kingdom of Jerusalem — never used “Palestine.”
• Mamluks (1291–1517):Controlled region as part of Damascus/Egypt.
• During this period,many Jews were killed, expelled, or fled to safer areas like Egypt, Syria, or smaller towns in Galilee.
• Mamluk rule (1291–1517) allowed Jewish communities toreturn to certain towns, but large-scale Jewish settlement in Gaza, southern coastal towns, and much of central Palestine remained minimal.
• Fact:The term “Palestine” fades from official use — the land called “Holy Land” or “Jerusalem.”

 

6. Ottoman Period (1517–1917 CE)

 

• Rule:The region came under Ottoman control for 400 years.
• Administration:The Ottomans divided the territory into sanjaks and vilayets

(districts and provinces), such as Sanjak of Jerusalem, Sanjak of Nablus, and Sanjak of Acre.

Ottomans did not use term “Palestine” officially; locals were identified by city, tribe, or religion

• Ottoman censuses recorded Jewish populations mainly inJerusalem, Safed, Hebron, and Tiberias, while areas like Gaza, Jaffa, Nablus, and much of the West Bank were overwhelmingly Muslim and Christian.
• Over centuries, Arabization and Islamization of rural areas continued, further shifting the demographics so that Jewish presence remained concentrated in select towns, while most villages and cities became predominantly Muslim or Christian
• Jews had avery small demographic presence in what would become “Palestinian” population centers.
• Over centuries,Arabization and Islamization of rural areas continued, further shifting demographics.
• There was no official Ottoman province called “Palestine.”
• Usage of “Palestine”:
  • The term “Palestine” appeared occasionally in European travel accounts, maps, and writings, but it was not an Ottoman administrative designation.
  • Locals identified themselves primarily by city, village, tribe, or religion(e.g., Jerusalemite, Nabulsi, Muslim, Christian, Jewish).
  • Ottoman records referred to the land using district namesor the broader regional term “al-Sham” (Greater Syria) rather than “Palestine.”
• Fact:“Palestine” existed during this period only as a geographical reference in external sources, not as a recognized province or as an ethnic/national identity among the local population.

 

7. British Mandate & Birth of Modern “Palestinian” Identity (1917–1948 CE)

 

• Mandate Name:Britain revives “Palestine” as the official name of the Mandate.
• Census (1922, 1931):Classified by religion (Muslim, Christian, Jew) — not by “Palestinian” ethnicity.
• The 1925 Citizenship Order legally defined all residents as ‘citizens of Palestine,’ including Jews, Christians, Muslims, and others, without reference to ethnicity
• 1940s:Arabs begin adopting term “Palestinian”
• 1964:PLO institutionalizes name “Palestinian” as a national identity (explicitly Arab, Muslim). This makes Palestinian as an ethnic identity only 61 years old.
• Jewish population increased mainly inurban centers and newly built settlements, encouraged by Zionist immigration.
• By the 1940s, Arabs in Gaza, the West Bank, and other towns had become the demographic majority, shaping the population distribution often referred to today as ‘Palestinian areas
• Arab populations in Gaza, the West Bank, and other towns becameMuslim majority, shaping the demographic map that is often referred to today as “Palestinian areas.”

 

Key Takeaways

 

1. For ~1800 years (132 CE – 20th c.) “Palestine” was a regional name only.
   Never an ethnic/national identity.

 

2. Jews lived in the region continuously for 1,000+ years before Islam.
   Judaism predates both Christianity and Islam in the land.

 

3. Muslim conquest (7th c.) changed religion and language gradually.
   Locals converted and became Arabized, but still were not called “Palestinians.”

 

4. The term ‘Palestinian’ was institutionalized as a distinct political and ethnic identity in the mid 20th century, while the region had long been home to diverse communities including non-Muslim Arabs, Jews, and Christians

 

 

1. “Palestine” Name – First Usage (Pre-Islam)

 

• When:132 CE
• By Whom:Roman Emperor Hadrian
• How Long Before Islam Emerged:
  • Islam emerged ~610 CE (Prophet Muhammad’s first revelations).
  • Name “Palestina” was used~480 years before Islam originated.

• What Palestina referred to:
• Administrative/imperial province of the Roman Empire.
• Name was derived from thePhilistines (extinct coastal people in Gaza region).
• Not an ethnic or national identity— purely geographic/administrative.

 

2. “Palestine” Name – usage after Islam

 

• When:638 CE onward
• By Whom:Rashidun Caliphate (after conquest of Byzantine territories)
• For how long was name “Palestine” used until 1964:
  • 638–1964 CE =~1,326 years

 

• What “Palestine” / Jund Filastin referred to:
• Administrative district:Jund Filasṭīn within larger Caliphates (Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid, Mamluk).
• Population identified bycity, tribe, religion, not ethnicity.
• Arabs gradually settled and converted, but thename remained geographic/administrative label.

3. “Palestine” Name – Total duration before modern Palestinian “ethnic” identity

 

• First Used:132 CE by Roman Emperor Hadrian
• Until:1964 CE (PLO institutionalizes modern “Palestinian” identity)
• Total Duration:1964 – 132 = ~1,832 years
• Note: counting from first use (132 CE) to 1964 totals ~1,832 years

 

Meaning Over Time:

• 132–638 CE:Roman/Byzantine administrative province; geographic label; derived from Philistines; no ethnic/national identity.
• 638–1917 CE:Muslim/Caliphate and Ottoman rulers continued using it as an administrative/geographic reference (“Jund Filasṭīn”); locals identified by city, tribe, or religion.
• 1917–1964 CE:Under the British Mandate, the territory was officially called Palestine.
  • Census Records:1922 and 1931 censuses classified residents by religion — Muslim, Christian, Jewish — not by ethnicity.
  • 1925 Citizenship Order:Created legal status of “citizen of Palestine” for all inhabitants, regardless of religion or ethnic background.
  • Ethnic Identity:The term “Palestinian” as a distinct ethnic/national identity had not yet emerged even by 1931; it applied to all residents in a legal sense, not as a marker of ethnicity or nationality.

 

Key Point:

The name “Palestine” existed for ~1,832 years before it became an ethnic or national identity in 1964.

 

Across 1,832 years, the name “Palestine” persisted as a geographic and administrative designation through Roman, Byzantine, Islamic, Ottoman, and British rule. Throughout this time, the inhabitants were identified by religion, city, or tribal affiliation, not by a unified ethnic or national identity.

 

Jewish communities lived continuously in the region for over a millennium before the rise of Islam, and Judaism predates both Christianity and Islam in the land.

 

Arabization and Islamization occurred gradually following the 7th-century Muslim conquest, yet a distinct “Palestinian” identity did not exist until the mid 20th century, when it was institutionalized by political movements such as the PLO.

 

Understanding the historical context of “Palestine” clarifies that the name’s long-standing usage as a geographic term differs fundamentally from its modern political and ethnic connotations. The emergence of the contemporary “Palestinian” identity is thus a product of modern political history, rather than ancient continuity.

 

Over centuries, Jewish populations became concentrated in towns and northern regions, while Arab-Muslim communities grew across Gaza, the West Bank, and southern cities, shaping the demographic mosaic that would define the region by the 20th century.

 

These facts clearly deny any historical claim to a separate nation or statehood though the human catastrophe has to be addressed and solved with any form of terrorism annihilated.

 

 

 

Shenali D Waduge